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that the legendary city is a mythical place that came to be identified with the present-day Ayodhya only during the Gupta Empire around the 4th-5th century CE.
The present-day city is identified as the location of Saketa, which was an important city of the Kosala mahajanapada in the first millennium BCE, and later served as its capital. The early Buddhist and Jain canonical texts mention that the religious leaders Gautama Buddha and Mahavira visited and lived in the city. The Jain texts also describe it as the birthplace of five tirthankaras namely, Rishabhanatha, Ajitanatha, Abhinandananatha, Sumatinath and Anantnath, and associate it with the legendary chakravarti (Sanskrit term)#Jain tradition. From the Gupta period onwards, several sources mention Ayodhya and Saketa as the name of the same city.
Owing to the belief as the birthplace of Rama, Ayodhya (Awadh) has been regarded as one of the seven most important pilgrimage sites (Sapta Puri) for Hindus. It is believed that the Ram Janmabhoomi was marked by a temple, which is said to have been demolished by the orders of the Mughal Empire emperor Babur and a disputed mosque erected in its place. The Ayodhya dispute concerns the activism by the Hindu groups to rebuild a Grand Rama's temple at the site of Janmabhoomi. The five judges Supreme Court of India bench heard the title dispute cases from August to October 2019. On 9 November 2019, the Supreme Court, headed by Chief Justice of India Ranjan Gogoi, vacated the previous decision and ruled that the land belonged to the government per tax records. It further ordered the land to be handed over to a trust to build the Hindu temple. It also ordered to the government to give alternate 5 acre land to Sunni Waqf Board to build the mosque.
The word "Ayodhya" is a regularly formed derivation of the Sanskrit verb ''yudh'', "to fight, to wage war". ''Yodhya'' is the future passive participle, meaning "to be fought"; the initial ''a'' is the negative prefix; the whole, therefore, means "not to be fought" or, more idiomatically in English, "invincible". This meaning is attested by the ''Atharvaveda'', which uses it to refer to the unconquerable city of gods. The 9th century Jain poem ''Adi Purana'' also states that Ayodhya "does not exist by name alone but by the merit" of being unconquerable by enemies. ''Satyopakhyana'' interprets the word slightly differently, stating that it means "that which cannot be conquered by sins" (instead of enemies).
"Saketa" is the older name for the city, attested in Buddhist, Jain, Sanskrit, Greek and Chinese sources. According to Vaman Shivram Apte, the word "Saketa" is derived from the Sanskrit words ''Saha'' (with) and ''Aketen'' (houses
buildings). The ''Adi Purana'' states that Ayodhya is called Saketa "because of its magnificent buildings which had significant banners as their arms". According to Hans T. Bakker, the word may be derived from the roots ''sa'' and ''ketu'' ("with banner"); the variant name ''saketu'' is attested in the ''Vishnu Purana''.
Ayodhya was stated to be the capital of the ancient Kosala kingdom in the ''Ramayana''. Hence it was also referred to as "Kosala". The ''Adi Purana'' states that Ayodhya is famous as ''su-kośala'' "because of its prosperity and good skill".
The cities of Ayutthaya (city) (Thailand), and Yogyakarta (Indonesia), are named after Ayodhya.
The earliest of the Buddhist Pali canon and the Jain Prakrit-language texts mention a city called Saketa (Sageya
Saeya in Prakrit) as an important city of the Kosala mahajanapada. Topographical indications in both Buddhist and Jain texts suggest that Saketa is the same as the present-day Ayodhya. For example, according to the ''Samyutta Nikaya'' and the ''Vinaya Pitaka'', Saketa was located at a distance of six ''yojana''s from Shravasti. The ''Vinaya Pitaka'' mentions that a big river was located between the two cities, and the ''Sutta Nipata'' mentions Saketa as the first halting place on the southward road from Shravasti to Pratishthana.
Ancient Sanskrit-language epics, such as the ''Ramayana'' and the ''Mahabharata'' mention a Ayodhya (legendary city), which was the capital of the legendary Ikshvaku dynasty kings of Kosala, including Rama. Neither these texts, nor the earlier Sanskrit texts such as the Vedas, mention a city called Saketa. Non-religious, non-legendary ancient Sanskrit texts, such as Panini's ''Ashtadhyayi'' and Patanjali's commentary on it, do mention Saketa. The later Buddhist text ''Mahavastu'' describes Saketa as the seat of the Ikshvaku king Sujata, whose descendants established the Shakya capital Kapilavastu (ancient city).
Fourth century onwards, multiple texts, including Kalidasa's ''Raghuvamsha'', mention Ayodhya as another name for Saketa. The later Jain canonical text ''Jambudvipa-Pannati'' describes a city called Viniya (or Vinita) as the birthplace of Rishabha, and associates this city with Bharata Chakravartin; the ''Kalpa Sutra'' describes Ikkhagabhumi as the birthplace of Rishabhadev. The index on the Jain text ''Paumachariya'' clarifies that Aojjha (Aodhya), Kosala-puri ("Kosala city"), Viniya, and Saeya (Saketa) are synonyms. The post-Canonical Jain texts also mention "Aojjha"; for example, the ''Avassagacurni'' describes it as the principal city of Kosala, while the ''Avassaganijjutti'' names it as the capital of King Sagara. The ''Avassaganijjutti'' implies that Viniya ("Vinia"), Kosalapuri ("Kosalapura"), and Ikkhagabhumi were distinct cities, naming them as the capitals of Abhinamdana, Sumai, and Usabha respectively. Abhayadeva's commentary on the ''Thana Sutta'', another post-canonical text, identifies Saketa, Ayodhya, and Vinita as one city.
According to one theory, the legendary Ayodhya city is the same as the historical city of Saketa and the present-day Ayodhya. According to another theory, the legendary Ayodhya is a mythical city, and the name "Ayodhya" came to be used for the Saketa (present-day Ayodhya) only around the fourth century, when a Gupta Empire emperor (probably Skandagupta) moved his capital to Saketa, and renamed it to Ayodhya after the legendary city. Alternative, but less likely, theories state that Saketa and Ayodhya were two adjoining cities,
that Ayodhya was a locality within the Saketa city.
Archaeological and literary evidence suggests that the site of present-day Ayodhya had developed into an urban settlement by the 5th
6th-century BCE. The site is identified as the location of the ancient Saketa city, which probably emerged as a marketplace located at the junction of the two important roads, the Shravasti-Pratishthana north-south road, and the Rajagriha-Varanasi-Shravasti-Taxila east-west road. Ancient Buddhist texts, such as ''Samyutta Nikaya'', state that Saketa was located in the Kosala kingdom ruled by Prasenajit (or Pasenadi; c. 6th-5th century BCE), whose capital was located at Shravasti. The later Buddhist commentary ''Dhammapada-atthakatha'' states that the Saketa town was established by merchant Dhananjaya (the father of Visakha), on the suggestion of king Prasenajit. The ''Digha Nikaya'' describes it as one of the six large cities of India. The early Buddhist canonical texts mention Shravasti as the capital of Kosala, but the later texts, such as the Jain texts ''Nayadhammakahao'' and ''Pannavana Suttam'', and the Buddhist Jatakas, mention Saketa as the capital of Kosala.
As a busy town frequented by travellers, it appears to have become important for preachers such as Gautama Buddha and Mahavira. The ''Samyutta Nikaya'' and ''Anguttara Nikaya'' mention that Buddha resided at Saketa at times. The early Jain canonical texts (such as ''Antagada-dasao'', ''Anuttarovavaiya-dasao'', and ''Vivagasuya'') state that Mahavira visited Saketa; ''Nayadhammakahao'' states that Parshvanatha also visited Saketa. The Jain texts, both canonical and post-canonical, describe Ayodhya as the location of various shrines, such as those of snake, yaksha Pasamiya, Muni Suvratasvamin, and Surappia.
It is not clear what happened to Saketa after Kosala was conquered by the Magadha emperor Ajatashatru around 5th century BCE. There is lack of historical sources about the city's situation for the next few centuries: it is possible that the city remained a commercial centre of secondary importance, but did not grow into a political centre of Magadha, whose capital was located at Pataliputra. Several Buddhist buildings may have been constructed in the town during the rule of the Maurya Empire emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE: these buildings were probably located on the present-day man-made mounds in Ayodhya. Excavations at Ayodhya have resulted in the discovery of a large brick wall, identified as a fortification wall by archaeologist B. B. Lal. This wall probably erected in the last quarter of the 3rd-century BCE.
, 1st-century BCE. minted in Ayodhya, Kosala. Obv: ''Muladevasa'', elephant to left facing symbol. Rev: Wreath, above symbol, below snake.After the decline of the Maurya empire, Saketa appears to have come under the rule of Pushyamitra Shunga. The 1st century BCE Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana suggests that he appointed a governor there. The ''Yuga Purana'' mentions Saketa as the residence of a governor, and describes it as being attacked by a combined force of Yavanas, Mathuras, and Panchalas. Patanjali's commentary on Panini also refers to the Greek siege of Saketa.
Later, Saketa appears to have become part of a small, independent kingdom. The ''Yuga Purana'' states that Saketa was ruled by seven powerful kings after the retreat of the Greeks. The ''Vayu Purana'' and the ''Brahmanda Purana'' also state that seven powerful kings ruled in the capital of Kosala. The historicity of these kings is attested by the discovery of the coins of the Deva dynasty (Saketa) kings, including Dhanadeva, whose inscription describes him as the king of Kosala (''Kosaladhipati''). As the capital of Kosala, Saketa probably eclipsed Shravasti in importance during this period. The east-west route connecting Pataliputra to Taxila, which earlier passed through Saketa and Shravasti, appears to have shifted southwards during this period, now passing through Saketa, Ahichhatra and Kanyakubja.
After the Deva kings, Saketa appears to have been ruled by the Datta dynasty, Kushan Empire, and Mitra kings, although the chronological order of their rule is uncertain. Bakker theorises that the Datta dynasty succeeded the Deva kings in the mid-1st century CE, and their kingdom was annexed to the Kushan Empire by Kanishka. The Tibetan text ''Annals of Li Country'' (c. 11th century) mentions that an alliance of king Vijayakirti of Khotan, king Kanika, the king of Gu-zan, and the king of Li, marched to India and captured the So-ked city. During this invasion, Vijayakirti took several Buddhist relics from Saketa, and placed them in the stupa of Phru-no. If Kanika is identified as Kanishka, and So-ked as Saketa, it appears that the invasion of Kushans and their allies led to the destruction of the Buddhist sites at Saketa.
Nevertheless, Saketa appears to have remained a prosperous town during the Kushan rule. The 2nd century geographer Ptolemy mentions a metropolis "Sageda"
"Sagoda", which has been identified with Saketa. The earliest inscription that mentions Saketa as a place name is dated to the late Kushan period: it was found on the pedestal of a Buddha image in Shravasti, and records the gift of the image by Sihadeva of Saketa. Before
after the Kushans, Saketa appears to have been ruled by a dynasty of kings whose names end in "-mitra", and whose coins have been found at Ayodhya. They may have been members of a local dynasty that was distinct from the Mitra dynasty of Mathura. These kings are attested only by their coinage: Sangha-mitra, Vijaya-mitra, Satya-mitra, Deva-mitra, and Arya-mitra; coins of Kumuda-sena and Aja-varman have also been discovered.
Around the 4th century, the region came under the control of the Gupta Empire, who revived Brahmanism. The ''Vayu Purana'' and the ''Brahmanda Purana'' attest that the early Gupta kings ruled Saketa. No Gupta-era archaeological layers have been discovered in present-day Ayodhya, although a large number of Gupta coins have been discovered here. It is possible that during the Gupta period, the habitations in the city were located in the areas that have not yet been excavated. The Buddhist sites that had suffered destruction during the Khotanese-Kushan invasion appear to have remained deserted. The 5th-century Chinese traveller Faxian states that the ruins of Buddhist buildings existed at "Sha-chi" during his time. One theory identifies Sha-chi with Saketa, although this identification is not undisputed. If Sha-chi is indeed Saketa, it appears that by the 5th century, the town no longer had a flourshing Buddhist community
any important Buddhist building that was still in use.
An important development during the Gupta time was the recognition of Saketa as the Ayodhya (legendary city), the capital of the Ikshvaku dynasty. The 436 CE Karamdanda (Karmdand) inscription, issued during the reign of Kumaragupta I, names Ayodhya as the capital of the Kosala province, and records commander Prithvisena's offerings to Brahmins from Ayodhya. Later, the capital of the Gupta Empire was moved from Pataliputra to Ayodhya. Paramartha states that king Vikramaditya moved the royal court to Ayodhya; Xuanzang also corroborates this, stating that this king moved the court to the "country of Shravasti", that is, Kosala. A local oral tradition of Ayodhya, first recorded in writing by Robert Montgomery Martin in 1838, mentions that the city was deserted after the death of Rama's descendant Brihadbala. The city remain deserted until King Vikrama of Ujjain came searching for it, and re-established it. He cut down the forests that had covered the ancient ruins, erected the Ramgar fort, and built 360 temples.
Vikramditya was a title of multiple Gupta kings, and the king who moved the capital to Ayodhya is identified as Skandagupta. Bakker theorises that the move to Ayodhya may have been prompted by a flooding of the river Ganges at Pataliputra, the need to check the Huna people advance from the west, and Skandagupta's desire to compare himself with Rama (whose Ikshvaku dynasty is associated with the legendary Ayodhya). According to Paramaratha's ''Life of Vasubandhu'', Vikramaditya was a patron of scholars, and awarded 300,000 pieces of gold to Vasubandhu. The text states that Vasubandhu was a native of Saketa ("Sha-ki-ta"), and describes Vikramaditya as the king of Ayodhya ("A-yu-ja"). This wealth was used to build three monasteries in the country of A-yu-ja (Ayodhya). Paramartha further states that the later king Baladitya (identified with Narasimhagupta) and his mother also awarded large sums of gold to Vasubandhu, and these funds were used to build another Buddhist temple at Ayodhya. These structures may have been seen by the 7th century Chinese traveller Xuanzang, who describes a stupa and a monastery at Ayodhya ("O-yu-t-o").
Ayodhya probably suffered when the Hunas led by Mihirakula invaded the Gupta empire in the 6th century. After the fall of the Guptas, it may have been ruled by the Maukhari dynasty, whose coins have been found in the nearby areas. It was not devastated, as Xuanzang describes it as a flourshing town and a Buddhist centre. However, it had lost its position as an important political centre to Kanyakubja (Kannauj). At the time of Xuanzang's visit, it was a part of Harsha's empire, and was probably the seat of a vassal
an administrative officer. Xuanzang states that the city measured about 0.6 km (20 li (unit)) in circumference. Another 7th-century source, ''Kāśikāvṛttī'', mentions that the town was surrounded by a moat similar to that around Pataliputra.
After the fall of Harsha's empire, Ayodhya appears to have been variously controlled by local kings and the rulers of Kannauj, including Yashovarman and the Gurjara-Pratiharas. The town is not mentioned in any surviving texts
inscriptions composed during 650-1050 CE, although it may be identified with the "city of Harishchandra" mentioned in the 8th-century poem ''Gaudavaho''. Archaeological evidence (including images to Vishnu, Jain tirthankaras, Ganesha, the seven Matrikas, and a Buddhist stupa) suggests that the religious activity in the area continued during this period.
According to Indologist Hans T. Bakker, the only religious significance of Ayodhya in the first millennium CE was related to the ''Gopratara'' tirtha (Hinduism) (now called Guptar Ghat), where Rama and his followers are said to have ascended to heaven by entering the waters of Sarayu.
In 1226 CE, Ayodhya became the capital of the province of Awadh (or "Oudh") within the Delhi sultanate. Muslim historians state that the area was little more than wilderness prior to this. Pilgrimage was tolerated, but the tax on pilgrims ensured that the temples did not receive much income.
; painting by William Hodges
Under Mughal Empire rule, the Babri mosque was constructed in Ayodhya. The city was the capital of the province of Awadh (later Anglicised to "Oudh"), which is also believed to be a variant of the name "Ayodhya."
After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 CE, the central Muslim rule weakened, and Awadh became virtually independent, with Ayodhya as its capital. However, the rulers became increasingly dependent on the local Hindu nobles, and control over the temples and pilgrimage centres was relaxed. Saadat Ali Khan II, Nawab of Awadh of Awadh, bestowed the ''riyasat'' (principality) of Ayodhya on his loyal Brahmin soldier Dwijdeo Mishra of the Kasyapa gotra, for quelling revenue rebels in Mehendauna in Poorvanchal.
, showing 'Ajodhia', 1903 map
Ayodhya was annexed in 1856 by the British rulers. The rulers of Awadh were Shia, and the Sunni groups had already protested against the permissive attitude of the former government. The British intervened and crushed the Sunni resistance. In 1857, the British annexed Oudh (Awadh) and subsequently reorganised it into the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh.
In the 1850s, a group of Hindus attacked the Babri mosque, on the grounds that it was built over Ram Janmabhoomi of the Hindu deity Rama. To prevent further disputes, the British administrators divided the mosque premises between Hindus and Muslims.
A movement was launched in 1984 by the Vishwa Hindu Parishad party to reclaim the Babri mosque site for a Rama temple. In 1992, a right wing Hindu nationalist rally progressed into a riot, leading to the demolition of the Babri Masjid. A makeshift temple at Ram Janmabhoomi for ''Ram Lalla Temple'', infant Rama. Under the Indian government orders, no one was permitted near the site for 200 yards, and the gate was locked to the outside. Hindu pilgrims, however, began entering through a side door to offer worship.
In 2003, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) carried out an excavation at the mosque site to determine if it was built over the ruins of a temple. The excavation uncovered pillar bases indicating a temple had been in existence under the mosque. Besides Hindus, the Buddhist and Jain representatives claimed that their temples existed at the excavated site.
On 5 July 2005, 2005 attack on Ayodhya attacked the site of the makeshift Ramlalla temple in Ayodhya. All five were killed in the ensuing gunfight with security forces, and one civilian died in the bomb blast triggered as they attempted to breach the cordon wall.
On 30 September 2010, the Lucknow bench of the Allahabad High Court ruled that one-third of the disputed land should be given to the Sunni Muslim Central Board of Waqfs, one-third to the Nirmohi Akhara and one-third to the Hindu party for the shrine of "Ram Lalla" (infant Rama). The court further ruled that the area where the idols of Ram are present be given to Hindus in the final decree, while the rest of the land shall be divided equally by metes and bounds among the three parties. The judgment, along with evidences provided by the Archaeological Survey of India, upheld that the Babri Masjid was built after demolishing the Hindu temple, which is the birthplace of Rama, and that the mosque was not constructed according to the principles of Islam. The final verdict by the Supreme Court on the case ruled the disputed land in the favour of Hindus for the construction of Ram Mandir and ordered an alternative piece of land be given to the Muslim community for the construction of a mosque.
In a judgement pronounced by a 5 judge bench of the Supreme Court of India on 9 November 2019, the land was handed over to the government to form a trust for the construction of a temple. The court instructed the government to allot a prime plot of 5 acres in Ayodhya to the Sunni WAQF board to construct a Masjid.
Some South Koreans have identified the "Ayuta" mentioned in their ancient Samgungnyusa legend with Ayodhya. According to this legend, the ancient Korean princess Heo Hwang-ok came from Ayuta. In the 2000s, the local government of Ayodhya and South Korea acknowledged the connection and held a ceremony to raise a statue of the princess.
celebrated at Ram ki Paidi ghat on the banks of Sarayu river in Ayodhya
India census, Ayodhya had a population of 49,593. Males constitute 59% of the population and females 41%. Ayodhya has an average literacy rate of 65%, higher than the national average of 59.5%; with 72% of the males and 62% of females literate. 12% of the population is under 6 years of age.
Ayodhya has a humid subtropical climate, typical of central India. Summers are long, dry and hot, lasting from late March to mid-June, with average daily temperatures near . They are followed by the monsoon season which lasts till October, with annual precipitation of approximately and average temperatures around . Winter starts in early November and lasts till the end of January, followed by a short spring in February and early March. Average temperatures are mild, near , but nights can be colder.
Ayodhya is an important place of pilgrimage for the Hindus. A verse in the ''Brahmanda Purana'' names Ayodhya among "the most sacred and foremost cities", the others being Mathura, Haridwar, Varanasi, Kanchipuram and Ujjain. This verse is also found in the other Puranas with slight variations. In Garuda Purana, Ayodhya is said to be one of seven holiest places for Hindus in India, with Varanasi being the most sacrosanct.
Hanumangarhi, a massive four-sided fort with circular bastions at each corner and a temple of Hanuman inside, is the most popular shrine in Ayodhya. Situated in the center of town, it is approachable by a flight of 76 steps. Its legend is that Hanuman lived here in a cave and guarded the Janambhoomi,
Ramkot. The main temple contains the statue of Maa Anjani with Bal Hanuman seated on her lap. The faithful believe wishes are granted with a visit to the shrine. Kanak Bhawan is a temple said to have been given to Sita and Rama by Rama's stepmother Kaikeyi as a wedding gift, and only contains statues of Sita with her husband.
Ramkot is the main place of worship in Ayodhya, and the site of the ancient citadel of its namesake, standing on elevated ground in the western city. Although visited by pilgrims throughout the year, it attracts devotees from all over the world on "Ram Navami", the day of the birth of Rama. Ram Navami is celebrated with great pomp in the Hindu month of Chaitra, which falls between March and April. Swarg Dwar is believed to be the site of cremation of Rama. Mani Parbat and Sugriv Parbat are ancient earth mounds, the first identified by a stupa built by the emperor Ashoka, and the second is an ancient monastery. Treta ke Thakur is a temple standing at the site of the Ashwamedha of Rama. Three centuries prior, the Raja of Kulu built a new temple here, which was improved by Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore in 1784, the same time the adjacent Ghats were built. The initial idols in black sandstone were recovered from Sarayu and placed in the new temple, which was known as Kaleram-ka-Mandir. Chhoti Devkali Mandir is the temple of goddess Ishani,
Durga, Kuldevi of Sita.
The temple of Nageshwarnath was established by Kusha (Ramayana), son of Rama. Legend has it that Kush lost his armlet while bathing in the Sarayu, and it was retrieved by a Nag-Kanya who fell in love with him. As she was a devotee of Shiva, Kush built her this temple. It was the only temple to survive when Ayodhya was abandoned until the time of Vikramaditya. While the rest of city was in ruin and covered by dense forest, this temple allowed Vikramaditya to recognise the city. The festival of Shivratri is celebrated here with great splendor.
The legendary princess Heo Hwang-ok, who married king Suro of Geumgwan Gaya of Korea, is believed by some to be a native of Ayodhya. In 2001, a Memorial of Heo Hwang-ok, Ayodhya was inaugurated by a Korean delegation, which included over a hundred historians and government representatives. In 2016, a Korean delegation proposed to develop the memorial. The proposal was accepted by the Uttar Pradesh chief minister Akhilesh Yadav.
This ancient cultural relationship was initiated in 1997 when a South Korean delegation headed by BM Kim, a descendant of King Suro, visited Ayodhya and informed "Raja" Bimlendra Mohan Mishra, scion of Ayodhya's Royal family about the connection. Mishra Says "When we came to know of the Korean connection, it was a big surprise for us. The memorial to queen Heo in Ayodhya is a major pilgrim centre for Koreans." An invitation has been extended to the Ayodhya ʻRajaʼ Mishra to visit Korea and ties between the two cities strengthened, with a Rs 200 cr Korean grant for Ayodhya.
To reach Ayodhya, the nearest airports are Faizabad Airport, 5 km away, Amausi Airport in Lucknow, 134 km away, Allahabad Airport, 166 km away. The city is on the broad gauge Northern Railway line on Mughal Sarai on the Lucknow main route with Ayodhya Railway Station and Faizabad Railway Stations. Ayodhya is connected by road to several major cities and towns, including Lucknow (134 km), Gorakhpur (132 km), Jhansi (441 km), Allahabad (166 km), Sravasti (109 km), Varanasi (209 km) and Gonda, Uttar Pradesh (51 km).
A direct bus service has been started between Ayodhya and Janakpur (birthplace of Sita), in Nepal as a part of Ramayana circuit.